A Non-Linear Exploration of Non-Linear Narratives

<h2>Choose Your Own Adventure Games</h2> Unlike other forms of non-linear writing, [[arborescent fictions->Arborescent Structure]] are relatively popular and well known. Thus, there are several tools that authors can use to easily create a [[web application->Web Applications]], [[standalone application->Applications]], or [[e-book->E-Books]] for arborescent fictions. Writing Tools: <a href="http://www.inklestudios.com/inklewriter/">Inklewriter</a>, <a href="https://www.choiceofgames.com/make-your-own-games/choicescript-intro/">ChoiceScript</a>, <a href="http://infinite-story.com/">Infinite Story</a>, <a href="http://twinery.org/">Twine</a> Examples: [[The Intercept->The Intercept]], Choice of the Dragon <strong>Strengths</strong> <span style="text-decoration: underline;">Accessible</span> – All three writing tools discussed here allow publishing stories as web applications. <span style="text-decoration: underline;">Minimum Programming Required</span> – The programming in Inklewriter and Infinite Story is GUI-based. That is, the author creates variables or sets settings by using an interface rather than a programming language. ChoiceScript is a natural programming language intended for use by non-programmers. <strong>Weaknesses</strong> <span style="text-decoration: underline;">Limited Customization</span> – All three writing tools discussed here assume that choices will only appear at the end of each section, making them less suitable for other types of non-linear writing where this isn’t the case. ChoiceScript and Inklewriter are visually friendly for short-form arborescent fictions but don’t work as well for long-form arborescent fictions. [[Difficult to Sell and Market->Difficult to Sell and Market]] – Infinite Story produces stories exclusively in HTML for viewing on the Infinite Story website. ChoiceScript can produce applications or web applications, but the majority of the books produced with ChoiceScript are available for free online. Books produced with Inklewriter are viewable using Inklewriter, which doubles as a viewer, online. While Inklewriter claims that it can produce <a href="http://www.inklestudios.com/inklewriter/kindle-ebooks/">mobi e-book files</a> of stories for a small fee, the ability to make this conversion is uncertain and may result in a sprawling e-book full of repeated sections. See The Intercept example. Inklewriter excels at the creation of game books, but <a href="http://www.intfiction.org/forum/viewtopic.php?f=16&t=13341">e-books can’t contain logic</a> to keep track of what the reader has viewed and ability points they’ve earned. This limitation can result in many repeated sections when all possible paths the reader can take with every possible combination of points they could have must be contained in the e-book.

<h2>Arborescent [[Structure]]</h2> Arborescent fictions follow a central story, theme, or goal and have many branching paths and endings. The reader determines the path they follow and ultimately the ending by selecting from a given set of options at the end of each section in the book. These include Choose Your Own Adventure books, generically referred to as pick-a-path books, and game books, defined on this website as pick-a-path books where available choices and their results depend on where users have been or ability points they have earned. These books can also be classified as long-form and short-form arborescent fictions. Short-form arborescent fictions are highly decision oriented. The sections between choices are one paragraph to a page long, and the book is usually written in second person. Long-form arborescent fictions contain much longer sections, asking for user input less often. These books are usually written in the third or first person. In digital mediums, readers usually select a choice at the end of each section by clicking an option from a list of hyperlinks. In a physical medium, the choices readers are given are accompanied by page numbers. Readers select a choice and turn to the corresponding page. Examples: [[The Adventures of Whatley Tupper]], [[The Redemption of Mr. Sturlubok->The Redemption of Mr Sturlubok]], [[The Most Boring Book Ever Written]], Choose Your Own Adventure book series, Choice of the Dragon, [[Fate / Stay Night->Fate Stay Night]]

<h2>Web Applications</h2> While [[websites->Websites]] are built primarily with basic HTML, web applications are built with online application development tools and languages. Also, unlike [[CYOA games->CYOA Games]], web applications are custom built for each non-linear book. CYOA games are written using a framework suitable for most [[arborescent fiction->Arborescent Structure]]. Writing Tools: [[Literatronic->Literatronic]], Flash, Javascript, HTML5, <a href="http://unity3d.com/5">Unity</a> Examples: [[The Virtual Disappearance of Miriam->The Virtual Disappearance of Miriam]], [[Inkubus->Inkubus]], [[10:01->1001]] <strong>Strengths</strong> [[Customization->Customization]] <span style="text-decoration:underline;">Accessible</span> – Anyone connected to the Internet with the required plugins can view the book. [[Resistant Against Obsolescence->Resistant Against Obsolescence]] <strong>Weaknesses</strong> [[Programming Required->Programming Required]] [[Difficult to Sell and Market]]

<h2>Applications</h2> Like [[visual novels->Visual Novels]], standalone applications are custom software built for a particular non-linear book. They are more flexible in style and form than visual novels, which are expected to have images, sounds, animations, and text laid out and interacted with in a specific way. In the early days of non-linear digital writing, authors could use tools such as Storyspace or Hypercard to create applications for Macintosh and Windows computers without help from a developer. Modern book applications, usually enhanced e-books, are typically exclusive to handheld devices and are built by professional developers. There are relatively new tools such as LiveCode avaliable, however, that claim to make programming multiplatform applications possible for non-programmers. Writing Tools: <a href="http://www.eastgate.com/storyspace/index.html">Storyspace</a>, Hypercard, <a href="http://livecode.com/">LiveCode</a> Examples: [[Fluid]]; afternoon, a story; [[Composition No. 1->Book-in-a-Boxes]]; Chooseco’s Choose Your Own Adventure e-books; <a href="http://livecode.com/alex-seropian/">Midnight Rises</a> <strong>Strengths</strong> [[Customization]] <span style="text-decoration:underline;">Marketable</span> – Most devices have a store where applications can be browsed and purchased. While enhanced e-books are less common, they are easily found though these channels. <strong>Weaknesses</strong> Prone to Obsolescence – Modern applications are usually developed for handheld devices, which are rapidly evolving and highly variable in hardware and capabilities. Applications can become obsolete or non-existent in as little as two years. Search for Travis Sentell’s Fluid applications, Jos Carlyle’s <a href="http://www.forbes.com/sites/alexknapp/2012/03/30/are-apps-the-future-of-book-publishing/">The Gift</a>, or any of <a href="http://promo.simonandschuster.com/vook/">Simon & Shuster’s vook</a> experiments with e-books combining text and video, and the applications are non-existent. These are only a few examples of enhanced e-books that have disappeared within years of their release. Because personal computers are more stable in their evolution, applications for PCs have survived for longer, but their earliest examples of digital non-linear fiction are starting to show their age. The first software platform used for delivering non-linear digital fiction, Storyspace, was created in <a href="http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=317431">1987</a> and is still available today but is incompatible with modern 64-bit operating systems. Its applications are similarly limited. Hypercard is no longer avaliable and is not supported by modern operating systems. <strong>Debateable</strong> [[Limited Accessibility]] [[Programming Required]] <span style="text-decoration:underline;">Expensive</span> – Modern applications are usually custom developed for one book by professional developers. If they are to be released on multiple devices, the application must be modified per device to conform to the standards and limitations of each. If hardware differs enough, the application may need to be substantially recreated or redesigned to support a particular device. This was the case with some of Fluid’s applications and editions. These applications then must be tested and minimally updated and supported for each device. LiveCode proports to reduce the expenses involved in software development, to output usable applications for many popular devices from one code base, and to be easy for non-programmers to learn and use, but it is questionable whether it can reduce the expenses or programming/skill level enough that applications become a more viable solution for non-linear authors. It doesn’t get around the necesssity of user testing and modifying per platform. For example, <a href="http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3AbV4Evqy8E">custom interface elements</a> need to be used to create applications with interfaces that are standard for handheld smartphones. For authors who use LiveCode, it has a bit of a learning curve and also expects the author to have knowledge of good interface design or the willingness to user test. This opens the possibility that like the [[hypertexts->Hypertexts]] created with Storyspace, <a href="http://eprints.bournemouth.ac.uk/10503/3/James_Pope_vol_1.pdf">important navigational buttons</a> may be hidden or omitted or the interface may otherwise be cluttered, unintuitive, or uninformative due to the author’s inexperience and the freedom given to them.

<h2>E-Books</h2> E-books are HTML- or PDF-based files that are distributed through online retailers such as Amazon, Barnes and Noble, Kobo, and iTunes and viewed using e-reader software. E-readers can be used to view many different e-books and provide readers with navigation controls, interface customization options, and basic information about the user’s position and the book’s length. In this way, authors don’t have to worry about creating the interface for their book as much and readers are given some freedom in how they experience the book. Writing Tools: <a href="http://sigil-ebook.com/">Sigil</a>, <a href="http://calibre-ebook.com/">Calibre</a>, <a href="http://www.inklestudios.com/inklewriter/">Inklewriter</a> Examples: [[The Adventures of Whatley Tupper]], [[The Redemption of Mr. Sturlubok->The Redemption of Mr Sturlubok]], [[The Most Boring Book Ever Written]], [[The Intercept]], [[Fluid]] <strong>Strengths</strong> [[Common]] <span style="text-decoration:underline;">Accessible</span> – E-book file standards were created so that e-books are displayed similarly across multiple devices and platforms. In theory, anyone can purchase an e-book and view it on any device with e-reader software. In reality, the use of DRM protections and proprietary formats based on e-book file standards limit what devices and software can be used to view certain e-books. <span style="text-decoration:underline;">Minimum Programming Required</span> – Most e-book file types are PDF-based or HTML-based. Anyone who knows how to use a word processor can create a PDF, and HTML is relatively easy to learn and write. With a little research, authors can write and format an e-book themselves. HTML-based e-books are even easier to write than websites because they don’t require that the author define fonts, backgrounds, controls, or other advanced visual elements. The e-readers used to view e-books usually provide the user with the interface they will need to view and navigate the book. [[Resistant Against Obsolescence]] – While epub 3.0 may become more commonly used in the future, it is only epub 2.0 with extra features. An epub 3.0 e-reader will still be able to read epub 2.0-based files. <strong>Weaknesses</strong> <span style="text-decoration:underline;">Content Restrictions</span> – Most modern e-readers only read epub 2.0-based files, not epub 3.0. Most distributors also expect epub 2.0-based files. Epub files containing video, audio, HTML5 applications, or other features don’t conform to the epub 2.0 standards and won’t be distributable through most channels or viewable with most e-readers. This limits authors to simply formatted e-books composed of text and images. <strong>Debatable</strong> [[Linear Format]] [[More Work for the Reader]] These two problems can be reduced or eliminated by the reader’s choice of e-reader. E-readers can be programmed to treat e-books as websites instead of single long documents and can provide users with a map of what they’ve read and what they haven’t. The Adventurous Reader prototype e-reader demonstrates this.

<h2><a href="https://writer.inklestudios.com/stories/theintercept">The Intercept</a></h2> <strong>Medium:</strong> [[Web Application->Web Applications]], [[E-book->E-Books]] <strong>Structure Classification:</strong> [[Arborescent fiction->Arborescent Structure]] <strong>Writing Tool:</strong> <a href="https://writer.inklestudios.com/">Inklewriter</a> <strong>Notes:</strong> In The Intercept, readers play the role of a military officer who has stolen a part from an important machine. They must admit the truth or lie their way to safety. The Intercept appears to be a short-form, game book where the combination of the user’s choices determines the ending rather than single choices determining what happens next. Many of the avaliable choices seem to be distractors, leading the reader to the same location regardless of the combination of choices selected. This book is avaliable as a web application built with Inklewriter or as an example e-book exported by Inkle Studios. It works well in Kindle but is so large that other e-readers such as Calibre and Adventurous Reader near crash when trying to open it. Most sections are repeated multiple times to account for the many paths through the book, and there are hundreds of sections simply telling the user to turn back a page or turn forward a page to avoid cheating.

<h2>Difficult to Sell and Market</h2> Books with this property are viewed online on a website. If the content on a website is to be sold, it must be consistently updated, maintained, and secured against unauthorized users. While there’s no shortage of books that have been published as websites, most people don’t know that they exist. For very experimental books such as [[hypertexts->Hypertexts]] , they may even go <a href="http://eprints.bournemouth.ac.uk/10503/3/James_Pope_vol_1.pdf">unrecognized as a book</a> if they are found by accident. Websites dedicated to cataloguing them such as the <a href="http://eliterature.org/">Electronic Literature Organization</a> are typically only known to insiders in the world hyptertexts and other digital experimental writing. Mediums with this Property: [[Websites]] , [[Web Applications]], [[CYOA Games]]

<h2>The Adventures of Whatley Tupper</h2> <strong>Medium:</strong> [[E-Book->E-Books]] <strong>Structure Classification:</strong> [[Arborescent fiction->Arborescent Structure]] <strong>Writing Tool:</strong> PEN! <strong>Notes:</strong> The Adventures of Whatley Tupper is a long-form, pick-a-path e-book for adults about a janitor who investigates the mysterious happenings surrounding his place of work.

<h2>Fate / Stay Night</h2> <strong>Medium:</strong> [[Visual Novel->Visual Novels]] <strong>Structure Classification:</strong> [[Arborescent fiction->Arborescent Structure]] Writing Tool: <a href="http://www.typemoon.com/">TYPE-MOON</a> (developer), <a href="http://www.mysteryparfait.com/kage-kirie/">KiriKiri</a> (visual novel engine) <strong>Notes:</strong> Fate / Stay Night is a game book-style visual novel. Throughout the novel, users are given choices that affect what happens immediately next and what happens in the long term. For example, some paths through the novel can only be found by making specific choices at several decision points in the game.

<h2>Websites</h2> Website non-linear books are defined here as websites composed mostly of basic HTML as opposed to [[web application->Web Applications]] non-linear books, which are books that have been built and designed with online application authoring tools. Examples: [[253]], <a href="http://www.yorku.ca/caitlin/waves/">These Waves of Girls</a>, [[The Victorian Web]], [[The Curtain Rises: Thoughts on my Grandfather’s Funeral->The Curtain Rises]] <strong>Strengths</strong> [[Customization]] <span style="text-decoration:underline;">Accessible</span> – Anyone connected to the Internet can find the book and read it. <span style="text-decoration:underline;">Minimum Programming Required</span> – HTML is relatively easy to learn and write. It’s possible for authors to create a simple website for their non-linear book themselves. [[Resistant Against Obsolescence]] – HTML is evolving but slowly. Its basic functionality has remained and is likely to continue existing. <strong>Weaknesses</strong> [[Difficult to Sell and Market]] <strong>Debatable</strong> [[Programming Required]] – There’s no shortage of books published as websites, but the majority of them are visually unappealing, cluttered, unintuitive, or uninformative. Granted, many of the website books available today were created in the 90s when conventions for good interface designs and templates were still being established. An author today, however, can’t be expected to know how to create an attractive and intuitive interface for their book. An interface designer and/or developer is almost required. This is just my opinion but is supported by <a href="http://eprints.bournemouth.ac.uk/10503/3/James_Pope_vol_1.pdf">James Pope</a>, who conducted a study of classic and modern interfaces for non-linear digital books.

<h2><a href="http://www.literatronica.net/src/Initium.aspx?lng=BRITANNIA">Literatronic</a></h2> <strong>Example Books:</strong> [[Extreme Conditions]] <strong>Description:</strong> Literatronic is an online publishing platform and learning algorithm for non-linear [[network->Network Structure]] and linear fictions. The author gives the system a set of pages and possible connections between them, but the system and readers choose the final ordering of pages. The connections between pages that readers follow most often will strengthen; the algorithm will be more likely to give readers the second page after showing the first. For readers who abandon their reading, the algorithm will analyze recent connections and alter the algorithm so they are less likely to happen. Literatronic also supports publishing the same book in multiple languages. The creator’s purpose in this system was to separate different <a href="http://www.literatronica.net/BBS_BRITANNIA/display_topic_threads.asp?ForumID=4&TopicID=18&PagePosition=1">layers of the creative process</a>. Literatronic defines a website interface that readers use to view the book. The author writes the pages of their book and gives the algorithm their vision of how those pages should be linked together. The algorithm uses the author’s vision as guidelines, but ultimately uses the connections between pages that are most intuitive to readers. In this way, the author doesn’t have to be relied upon to produce an intuitive and asthetic interface and can focus on writing a strong story. The reader isn’t bound to the connections that the author envisions between their pages, which may not be intuitive to anyone but the author. The Literatronic website appears to have been inactive since 2010. <strong>Advantages:</strong> * Authors aren’t required to design an interface. * Preliminary support for securing books against unauthorized users exists. * Readers influence how pages are connected. * Books are avaliable to anyone with a web browser. <strong>Disadvantages:</strong> * Literatoronic is inactive. * Authors have less control over how pages are connected. * Readers must login to use all the features of Literatronic.

<h2><a href="http://dreamingmethods.com/miriam/">The Virtual Disappearance of Miriam</a></h2> <strong>Medium:</strong> [[Web Application->Web Applications]] <strong>Structure Classification:</strong> [[Axial fiction->Axial Structure]] <strong>Writing Tool:</strong> Flash <strong>Notes:</strong> The Virtual Disappearance of Miriam tells the surreal story of Luther in his search for his missing girlfriend Miriam. The story is split into four chapters, which are best read linearly. Some words in each chapter are hyperlinks to side notes relating to the story, characters, or objects. In the final chapter, there are three endings to choose from. The application includes plenty of sound design in addition to graphical elements. Music is present on the main menu as well as in each of the four sections. Sound effects are common and even some voice acting can be found. Text is placed to mimic the mood of, the action in, or the events that take place in a scene. Chapter 3, for example, is partially written in the style of a movie script. Blocks of text in other chapters fill the form of an object. The visual and sound elements are for the most part well integrated with the text and the story rather than distracting or unneccessary. The interface is intuitive and well designed. If I had one complaint though, it is that the music is very repetitive.

<h2><a href="http://dreamingmethods.com/inkubus/play.html">Inkubus</a></h2> <strong>Medium:</strong> [[Web Application->Web Applications]] <strong>Structure Classification:</strong> [[Axial fiction->Axial Structure]] <strong>Writing Tool:</strong> <a href="http://unity3d.com">Unity</a> <strong>Notes:</strong> In Inkubus, the reader takes on the role of a teenage girl. In a chat with a mysterious friend over the Internet, the reader is asked to answer the question “Who are you?” and “What does society want you to be?” The beginning and end of the game takes place in a surreal 3D environment. The middle of the game takes place in a 2D environment representing a laptop screen where the user is asked a series of questions in an instant messenger-like application. The user can answer each question in one of three ways. Each question answered “correctly” earns the player health points, which come in handy for the end of the game when the player must find their true self in a dangerous environment. The player is asked mostly the same series of questions each play through, but can answer them in different ways, gaining different answers and health points and making it more similar to an axial fiction than an [[arborescent fiction->Arborescent Structure]].

<h2><a href="http://www.lanceolsen.com/1001.html">10:01</a></h2> <strong>Medium:</strong> [[Web Application->Web Applications]] <strong>Structure Classification:</strong> [[Network fiction->Network Structure]] <strong>Writing Tool:</strong> Flash <strong>Notes:</strong> 10:01 allows the reader to explore the thoughts and actions of a group of people in a movie theater. The story is highly reminiscent of [[253]] and has little new to add in terms of its writing. Like 253, 10:01 features the thoughts of a random animal, horny people, troubled people, and outright insane people and ended with their suggested terrible demise. Within the text, there were links to other websites, something that 253 didn’t have, but I found this disturbing more than intriguing because I couldn’t see where the link led (a big problem considering all the malicious websites out there) and because I couldn’t help but wonder what would happen to this book if that website ever ceased existing. 10:01 would become dated instantly. While some of these links led to some interesting material (e.g. an explanation of the letter “H” in the curse “Jesus H. Christ”), many of them led to websites that added nothing to the story (e.g. a hyperlink from “movies” led to a website advertising newly released movies, another link led to another [[hypertext->Hypertexts]]), which discouraged their use. It’s interface is very different from 253, which made it more asthetically appealing. The text’s background is a dark movie theater with the subjects of the story visible. Users can click on anyone in the audience to view the sections of text corresponding to them. Sections are labeled with time stamps and each audience member can have one or more sections. Users can also view the sections in chronological order. The Flash application has some other features such as occassional sound effects and images intended to accompany the text, but I felt they were less effective. The sound effects were distracting and repetitive. The images were usually distracting, confusing, or, like the links to outside websites, added so little as to be ignoreable.

<h2>Customization</h2> In this medium, authors can create an interface that’s customized for their non-linear book and the type of experience that they want their readers to have in viewing it. Authors can include video, audio, images, and other multimedia elements. Mediums with this Property: [[Applications]], [[Websites]], [[Web Applications]], [[Visual Novels]]

<h2>Resistant Against Obsolescence</h2> Anyone who owns this book will be able to view it and use it for many years. The devices or software used to view it, if any, are unlikely to become obsolete or are likely to remain updated and backwards compatible in the near future because of their widespread use and convenience. Mediums with this Property: [[Books]], [[Websites]], [[Web Applications]], [[Text Adventures]]

<h2>Programming Required</h2> Authors will likely need the help of one or more developers to create their book. Mediums with this Property: [[Applications]], [[Web Applications]]

<h2>Visual Novels</h2> Visual novels are digital novels accompanied by images, animations, music, sounds, and video. Multimedia elements are almost required and expected to be presented in a particular way unlike other types of book [[applications->Applications]]. Text is typically overlaid on painted backgrounds. Characters are often visible and minimally animated to sync with the actions found in the text. Sound effects and music also accompany the action and mood described in the scene. Most visual novels are [[arborescent fictions->Arborescent Structure]], occasionally asking the user to make a decision about what to do next. [[Network fictions->Network Structure]] and [[axial fictions->Axial Structure]] also exist. Some novels have video game-like fight sequences or mini-games, but novels with interaction primarily including simple user choices are just as common. Writing Tools: <a href="http://unity3d.com/5?gclid=COzFjYyIscQCFciBfgodV40A5w">Unity</a>, <a href="http://www.renpy.org/">Ren’Py</a> Examples: [[Analogue: A Hate Story->Analogue A Hate Story]], [[Fate / Stay Night->Fate Stay Night]], [[The 39 Steps]] <strong>Strengths</strong> [[Customization]] [[Common]] <span style="text-decoration:underline;">Strong connection between multimedia and text</span> – In other mediums such as enhanced e-books, the marriage of text with multimedia can be awkward or gimmicky. Visual novels, on the other hand, are designed and expected to include multimedia and text elements. <strong>Weaknesses</strong> [[Programming Required]] – Artwork, sound, and music are also expected and required. [[Limited Accessibility]]

<h2>Fluid</h2> <strong>Medium:</strong> [[Application->Applications]], [[E-book->E-Books]] <strong>Structure Classification:</strong> [[Axial fiction->Axial Structure]] <strong>Writing Tool:</strong> Coliloquy (developer) <strong>Notes:</strong> Fluid is a modern and surreal take on the story of Adam and Eve and good vs. evil. The Kindle e-book edition functions like an axial fiction or a simple [[arborescent fiction->Arborescent Structure]]. Part 2 of the book is a collection of sections that readers can view in any order or not at all. The rest of the book is mostly linear with a few choice points and optional sections and two endings. The book was also <a href="http://www.coliloquy.com/products/fluid/">released</a> as an application for Kindle, Nook, Android, iBooks, and Kobo devices. Each edition functioned slightly differently given the limitations of each device with the Kindle application functioning most similarly to the author Travis Sentell’s original intent (Source - interview). In some editions, users had to make a choice at a decision point before they could view the next section and couldn’t return to previous decision points or sections. In all editions, the collection of choices users make determines the ending akin to a game book. Thus, the effects of each choice are somewhat disguised. The effect of individual choices is more obvious in some editions than others. Since the publisher and developer Coliloquy closed, the applications for Fluid are no longer avaliable.

<h2>Composition No. 1</h2> <strong>Medium:</strong> [[Application->Applications]], [[Physical Book->Books]] <strong>Structure Classification:</strong> [[Network fiction->Network Structure]] <strong>Writing Tool:</strong> <a href="http://www.universaleverything.com/">Universal Everything</a> <strong>Notes:</strong> Composition No. 1 was the first “book in a box,” originally published as a collection of loose pages in a box in 1962. The pages can be read in any order, each featuring a self-contained narrative. Visual Editions has republished the book as a book-in-a-box and as an iPad app that randomly selects pages for the user to read next.

<h2>Limited Accessibility</h2> Feasibly, book applications can usually only be created for a subset of devices and platforms. Readers who don’t have any of the supported devices cannot read the book. Mediums with this Property: [[Visual Novels]], [[Applications]]

<h2>Hypertexts</h2> "Hypertexts" is a term typically associated with digital [[network->Network Structure]] and [[axial->Axial Structure]] books or narratives, but it’s also been used to describe <a href="http://dreamingmethods.com/incomplete/">multimedia applications</a> and <a href="http://dreamingmethods.com/fractured/">word collages</a> like those found of the <a href="http://dreamingmethods.com/">Dreaming Methods</a> website. Since the first hypertext "afternoon, a story" was created in <a href="http://con.sagepub.com/content/12/4/447.abstract">1987</a>, hypertexts have been the focus of <a href="http://unknownhypertext.com/presskit/jensenthesis.pdf">much debate</a> and <a href="http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=317426.317431">many</a> <a href="http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/30200162?sid=21104990542631&uid=3739256&uid=70&uid=4&uid=3739768&uid=2129&uid=2">scholarly</a> <a href="http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/handle/2027.42/42572">papers</a>. On this website, however, I will avoid the use of the term as it is somewhat imprecise. Nonetheless, it is bound to turn up somewhere.

<h2>Common</h2> People are used to using this medium of entertainment. They know where to look for books in this medium. Books in this medium are seen a profitable or potentially profitable. They are easy to market and sell. Mediums with this Property: [[Books]], [[E-Books]], [[Visual Novels]], [[Text Adventures]]

<h2>Linear Format</h2> Sections of non-linear books must be organized into a linear format before publication. This order may not be intuitive and suggests to the reader that the book is linear. The author is forced to order sections that may not have an inherent or desired order. Mediums with this Property: [[Books]], [[E-Books]]

<h2>More Work for the Reader</h2> Books published in this medium usually don’t provide maps for non-linear books. Readers must do extra work to keep track of where they are and what they’ve read. Books with rules on how they should be read, such as [[arborescent fictions->Arborescent Structure]], rely on the reader to follow those rules. Mediums with this Property: [[Books]], [[E-Books]]

<h2><a href="http://www.literatronica.net/src/Pagina.aspx?lng=BRITANNIA&opus=1&pagina=1">Extreme Conditions</a></h2> <strong>Medium:</strong> [[Web Application->Web Applications]] <strong>Structure Classification:</strong> [[Network fiction->Network Structure]] <strong>Writing Tool:</strong> [[Literatronic]] <strong>Notes:</strong> Extreme Conditions is an experimental novel about a pair of time travelers who attempt to prevent a future environmental disaster caused by the stress the human and Avatar populations have had on the planet. Each time traveler has a plan about how to save the world but must sway a younger version of the most powerful man in the world to their cause. At the end of each of the 66 sections composing this novel, readers are given three choices on what section to read next. These sections, the most likely to relate to the current section, are chosen by a learning algorithm developed by the author in a system called Literatronic. The book reveals that the events take place in an infinite loop, given the time travel mechanics in the story. Thus, the sections can be read in any order and the story they tell pieced together. The algorithm will give readers pages up to three at a time until all of them have been read. The creator’s native language isn’t English, and the translation of Extreme Conditions is unfortunately weak. For the most part, it is a difficult and unrewarding read. It wasn’t until I had read about 75% of the story that I realized the brilliance of its structure and its system.

<h2>Network [[Structure]]</h2> In fiction, books with a network structure can be composed of multiple narratives, multiple entrance points, and sections that can be read in many different orders. Often, network fictions don’t have defined endings. Non-fiction “books” with a network structure are most often collections of informational documents, but experimental essays and memoires also exist. For more information on these creative non-fictions, see George Landow’s paper "<a href="http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs11059-009-0013-5">Creative nonfiction in electronic media: new wine in new bottles?</a>" In a digital medium, hyperlinks within the text link the sections of the book together. In a physical medium, the sections of the text are ordered linearly in a traditional book or published as a book-in-a-box. <strong>Examples:</strong> <span style="text-decoration: underline;">Fiction</span> – [[Analogue: A Hate Story->Analogue A Hate Story]], [[253]], [[Composition No. 1->Book-in-a-Boxes]] <span style="text-decoration: underline;">Non-fiction</span> – [[Wikipedia]]; [[The Victorian Web]]; [[Encyclopedias]]; [[The Curtain Rises: Thoughts on my Grandfather’s Funeral->The Curtain Rises]]; [[Inf(l)ections: Writing as Virus, Hypertext as Meme->Inflections]]

<h2>Axial [[Structure]]</h2> Fictions with an axial structure have a central storyline with optional paths branching off of it. Readers return to the central storyline after exploring an optional path. Non-fiction books with optional sections or appendixes also have an axial structure. In digital mediums, readers can follow these branches by clicking on a hyperlink within the text. In physical mediums, optional sections are typically marked in some way, such as placing a box around them. <strong>Examples:</strong> <span style="text-decoration: underline;">Fiction</span> – [[Fluid]], [[House of Leaves]], [[The Virtual Disappearance of Miriam]], [[The 39 Steps]] <span style="text-decoration: underline;">Non-Fiction</span> – Textbooks, The Making of Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within

<h2><a href="http://www.ryman-novel.com/">253</a></h2> <strong>Medium:</strong> [[Website->Websites]], [[Physical Book->Books]] <strong>Structure Classification:</strong> [[Network fiction->Network Structure]] <strong>Writing Tool:</strong> THE INTERNET AND PEN! <strong>Notes:</strong> 253 describes the 253 passengers aboard the doomed Bakerloo Line train in London. Readers can explore the lives of the travelers and discover their fates in any order desired. The book was originally published as a website in 1996 and later published as a printed book, 253: The Print Remix, in 1998. Disorientation is <a href="http://eprints.bournemouth.ac.uk/10503/">a common problem</a> among network fictions, but 253, the website, sucessfully conveys the user’s position at all times with a clear interface. This, in addition to witty and clever writing, may have been the reason why it was so popular. The passengers are found among the seven train cars making up the Bakerloo Line. Each car is represented by a webpage with a simple table of passenger names, each of which is a hyperlink to another page describing the passenger. The webpage for each passenger links back to the passenger’s traincar, and the traincar webpages are linked to each other in order. Readers can navigate between passengers using these traincars, or by clicking on hyperlinks within the texts of the passengers. The latter links connect passengers together in a meaningful, understandable way (e.g. there is a link from passenger A to passenger B because A is watching B from across the car). This may sound obvious, but you’d be surprised how many network fictions don’t clearly indicate or display how sections/webpages are linked together or related. The website relies on the readers’ web browser or readers themselves to keep track of what sections they’ve read. For readers who wish to read every section, this is an imperfect solution for such a massive book. I found myself reading sections multiple times because my web browser didn’t always mark links to sections that I’d already seen.

<h2>Books</h2> When published in physical books, the sections of non-linear books are usually placed in some order so that the book can be bound. Less commonly, the pages of the book are left [[loose-leaf->Book-in-a-Boxes]] or in [[small pamphlets->The Unfortunates]] so that readers can read them in any order. Writing Tools: PEN! Examples: [[House of Leaves]], [[Composition No. 1->Book-in-a-Boxes]], [[The Unfortunates]] <strong>Strengths</strong> [[Common]] [[Resistant Against Obsolescence]] <span style="text-decoration:underline;">Accessible</span> – Anyone can purchase the book and read it. <span style="text-decoration:underline;">Minimum Programming Required</span> – Authors don’t need to have any specialized technical skills to write a book in this medium. <strong>Weaknesses</strong> [[Linear Format]] [[More Work for the Reader]] – Physical books also require readers to manually find pages. <strong>Debatable</strong> <span style="text-decoration:underline;">Expensive</span> – Printing costs are argued to be expensive. In some cases, however, the development costs of digital books <a href="http://www.pubexec.com/article/magazine-publishers-need-know-true-cost-print-vs-digital-media/1">equal or even exceed</a> the costs of printing and shipping physical books. Books that rely on complex layouts, sidebars, or illustrations are usually cheapest when served printed. Distributing books with simple layouts as [[e-books->E-Books]], however, can be <a href="http://digitalpublishing101.com/digital-publishing-101/digital-publishing-basics/print-versus-digital-editions/%20">cheaper and less complicated</a>.

<h2>Text Adventures</h2> Text adventures are [[axial->Axial Structure]] or [[arborescent->Arborescent Structure]] fictions distributed in one of several file types and viewed using an interpreter. This is similar to [[e-books->E-Books]], which are distributed in one of several file types and viewed using an e-reader. Text adventures, however, have a much different writing style, and interaction and exploration are required for all texts rather than optional. Also, rather than selecting one of several options at the end of each section, users interact with the book by typing an action in near natural language. Writing Tools: <a href="http://inform7.com/">Inform 7</a> Examples: <a href="http://adamcadre.ac/if.html">Photopia</a>, <a href="http://blue-lacuna.textories.com/">Blue Lacuna</a> <strong>Strengths</strong> <span style="text-decoration:underline;">Accessible</span> – Interpreters for reading text adventures exist for all major and many minor <a href="http://aaronareed.net/creating-interactive-fiction-with-inform-7/">platforms</a>. Many text adventures can even be played in a web browser. [[Common]] [[Resistant Against Obsolescence]] – Inform 7 has been evolving for decades since the first virtual machine and language for playing and writing interactive fictions came into <a href="http://aaronareed.net/creating-interactive-fiction-with-inform-7/">existence</a>. <span style="text-decoration:underline;">Minimum Programming Required</span> – Inform 7, the language most modern text adventures are written in, was designed particularly for writers/non-programmers. It is thus relatively easy to learn and use without the assistance of a professional developer. <strong>Weaknesses</strong> <span style="text-decoration:underline;">Different Writing Style</span> – Text adventures aren’t suited for all types of narratives because the writing style is very different from other forms of writing. <a href="http://aaronareed.net/creating-interactive-fiction-with-inform-7/">Objects</a> are often the focus of these stories rather than actions, thoughts, dialog, or characters.

<h2><a href="http://www.victorianweb.org/">The Victorian Web</a></h2> <strong>Medium:</strong> [[Application->Applications]], [[Website->Websites]] <strong>Structure Classification:</strong> [[Network non-fiction->Network Structure]] <strong>Writing Tool:</strong> <a href="http://www.eastgate.com/storyspace/index.html">Storyspace</a> <strong>Notes:</strong> Originally published as a standalone application built in Storyspace, the Victorian Web is a collection of peer-reviewed documents on Victorian history, culture, science, and many other topics. Unlike other websites containing collections of documents, such as [[Wikipedia]], or websites to aid in searching through documents, such as Google, the Victorian Web emphasizes the links between documents rather than the massive search through them. Like other early non-fiction collections, the Victorian Web was created to assist college students and scholars in seeing the links between fields and information.

<h2><a href="http://www.cyberartsweb.org/cpace/nonfiction/genre/mystories/blunt/TheCurtainRises.html">The Curtain Rises: Thoughts on my Grandfather's Funeral</a></h2> <strong>Medium:</strong> [[Website->Websites]] <strong>Structure Classification:</strong> [[Network non-fiction->Network Structure]] <strong>Writing Tool:</strong> THE INTERNET! <strong>Notes:</strong> Thoughts on my Grandfather’s Funeral is, as it sounds, a short memoire of the author’s grandfather William’s funeral. The account is separated into sections that the reader can explore using the author’s provided hyperlinks. Each section generally describes an aspect of the event that made it a ridiculous affair such as the children running happily through the aisles, the overdramatic show of emotion, and the pastor wrongfully calling the author’s grandfather “James.” Some sections, however, contain paraphrased or copied informational material on topics such as mourning practices, hair plugs, and general biographical information about William. By copying this information from the websites that originally contained it (which she cites) and formatting it herself, the author gave her work as a whole a coherent look. While some of the information was a bit tangential, its appearance and the author’s effort in including it made it feel as if it were more part of the whole than it would have been otherwise. While the website has a coherent look, it is somewhat offputting. The black, Times New Roman text often spans the screen and is written directly on top of images. The backgrounds are often tiled images, which always seem strange and sometimes even seems unintentional. Some links are dead only because they are mistyped. The author’s choice to present this information non-linearly is interesting and works for the most part. It shows the promise of using this writing technique for non-fiction, but the sections are short and the work as a whole is short. This made it easy for me to connect all the pieces together, but I do wonder how this technique would work in longer non-fictions.

<h2><a href="http://ahatestory.com/">Analogue: A Hate Story</a></h2> <strong>Medium:</strong> [[Visual Novel->Visual Novels]] <strong>Structure Classification:</strong> [[Network fiction->Network Structure]] <strong>Writing Tool:</strong> <a href="http://www.renpy.org/">Ren’Py</a> <strong>Notes:</strong> In Analogue: A Hate Story, readers investigate the computer records of an ancient spacecraft to determine what caused the ship to become stranded over 600 years ago. Readers can choose one of two AIs, Hyun-ae and Mute, to assist them in uncovering hidden records. This is one of the more successful network fictions I’ve read. Readers unlock batches of documents, which consist of letters, diaries, and ship logs related to several families who lived on the ship and the incidents leading up to its demise. Readers can show these documents to whichever AI is activated to unlock more documents or get her opinion. While the game has five definitive endings that are determined by the user’s interactions with the AIs, I consider this to be more of a network fiction than an arborescent fiction because of the multiple narratives and perspectives from both the documents and the AIs, the seamless transitions between those narratives, and the mostly free and unordered access users have to the documents. What makes Analogue so successful is how the AIs tie the multiple narratives together into a coherent whole for the reader. A common complaint as noted by <a href="http://eprints.bournemouth.ac.uk/10503/">James Pope</a> and what I’ve noticed in my own readings of network fictions is that the connection between documents isn’t always obvious, which is very confusing and disorienting. Try <a href="http://www.yorku.ca/caitlin/waves/navigate.html">These Waves of Girls</a> for an example. What Hyun-ae and Mute do is, before sending the reader a new batch of documents, they explain how those documents are related to what the user just read. The AIs serve as a common thread between what could otherwise be a confusing mess of documents and storylines as is the case with many other network fictions. Analogue is still a somewhat challenging read, but this technique makes it much easier for the average reader to digest than it could be.

<h2>The 39 Steps</h2> <strong>Medium:</strong> [[Visual Novel->Visual Novels]] <strong>Structure Classification:</strong> [[Axial fiction->Axial Structure]] <strong>Writing Tool:</strong> The Story Mechanics (developer), <a href="http://unity3d.com">Unity</a> (game engine) <strong>Notes:</strong> The 39 Steps is a digital adaptation of John Buchan’s 1915 book of the same name. Dialog is delivered by voice actors while actions are read. The story is linear, but the user is invited to explore objects such as newspapers, pictures, and notes or read more about the characters and setting in optional sections. Occasionally, the user must perform mouse gestures to direct their avatar, open a door, or perform some other action in between reading sections.

<h2>The Unfortunates</h2> <strong>Medium:</strong> [[Physical Book->Books]] <strong>Structure Classification:</strong> [[Network fiction->Network Structure]] <strong>Writing Tool:</strong> PEN! <strong>Notes:</strong> The Unfortunates, originally published in <a href="http://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/24/books/review/Taylor-t.html?pagewanted=all&_r=1&">1969</a>, is a book-in-a-box that consists of 27 pamphlets. The pamphlets intended to be read first and last are designated, and the remaining 25 of varying sizes can be read in any order.

<h2><a href="http://www.wikipedia.org/">Wikipedia</a></h2> <strong>Medium:</strong> [[Website->Websites]] <strong>Structure Classification:</strong> [[Network non-fiction->Network Structure]] <strong>Writing Tool:</strong> THE INTERNET! <strong>Notes:</strong> Given the uniform appearance of all wikipedia pages and the large amount of linking between its pages, Wikipedia could be considered to be a non-linear book.

<h2>Encyclopedias</h2> <strong>Medium:</strong> [[Physical Books->Books]] <strong>Structure Classification:</strong> [[Network non-fiction->Network Structure]] <strong>Writing Tool:</strong> PEN! <strong>Notes:</strong> As physical books, encyclopedias contain a collection of uniform documents. Though they are ordered alphabetically for convenience and out of necessity, the documents don’t have an inherent order and can be considered to be non-linear. In addition, the documents often refer to each other with page numbers or other parenthetical suggestions akin to hyperlinks.

<h2><a href="http://cyberartsweb.org/cpace/infotech/cook/centre.html">Inf(l)ections: Writing as Virus, Hypertext as Meme</a></h2> <strong>Medium:</strong> [[Website->Websites]] <strong>Structure Classification:</strong> [[Network non-fiction->Network Structure]] <strong>Writing Tool:</strong> THE INTERNET! <strong>Notes:</strong> Inf(l)ections is a non-linear essay describing the role of [[hypertexts->Hypertexts]] in the spreading of memes.

<h2>House of Leaves</h2> <strong>Medium:</strong> [[Physical Book->Books]] <strong>Structure Classification:</strong> [[Axial fiction->Axial Structure]] <strong>Writing Tool:</strong> PEN! <strong>Notes:</strong> House of Leaves is a 500-page-long review of a horror movie that doesn’t exist by Mark Z. Danielewski. The main narrative, a review of the movie from the perspective of a cast of “professionals” and “movie critics,” has copious footnotes that, among other functions, tell the stories of the book’s fictional editor and writer, list pages worth of apparently meaningless objects and random data, and act as actual footnotes. The book also features some artistic typographical elements. Some pages, for example, have only a small number of words distributed to reflect the current scenario described in the film.

<h2>The Redemption of Mr. Sturlubok</h2> <strong>Medium:</strong> [[E-Book->E-Books]] <strong>Structure Classification:</strong> [[Arborescent fiction->Arborescent Structure]] <strong>Writing Tool:</strong> PEN! <strong>Notes:</strong> The Redemption of Mr. Sturlubok is a long-form, pick-a-path e-book for adults about an anti-social (acting) vice principle and the situations in which he could be a better person but usually isn’t. In addition to having choices at the end of each section, the book also has hyperlinks to side notes within each section. These side notes often explain Mr. Sturlubok’s strange behavior and his viking ancestry. One path through the book also features an interesting game similar to Who Wants to be a Millionaire? in which these footnotes come in handy.

<h2>The Most Boring Book Ever Written</h2> <strong>Medium:</strong> [[E-Book->E-Books]] <strong>Structure Classification:</strong> [[Arborescent fiction->Arborescent Structure]] <strong>Writing Tool:</strong> PEN! <strong>Notes:</strong> The Most Boring Book Ever Written is a sarcastic long-form, pick-a-path e-book about a retired fighter pilot’s average life. While it primarily has an arborescent structure, I did find one link that led to an optional section, akin to an [[axial structure->Axial Structure]]. I was pleasantly surprised to find that the book isn’t DRM-protected when purchased from Amazon, which meant I could play around with it in Calibre and thus Adventurous Reader.

<h2>A Note on Structure Classifications</h2> [[Axial->Axial Structure]], [[arborescent->Arborescent Structure]], and [[network->Network Structure]] fictions were described and defined by David Ciccoricco in the Introduction to his book Reading Network Fiction to classify types of [[hypertext fictions->Hypertexts]]. On this website, the terms are used more generally to classify non-linear fiction and non-fiction narratives in all digital and physical mediums. “Pick-a-path,” “game book,” “long-form,” and “short-form” are generic terms used on this website to refer to particular sub-categories and classifications of arborescent fictions.

<h2>Introduction</h2> In 2013, I became interested in the idea of creating an e-reader for non-linear e-books. E-books allowed authors to create links between sections and chapters, but typical e-readers like Kindle and Calibre still displayed the book as if it were meant to be read from beginning to end linearly even if it obviously wasn't. This interest would become my master's thesis in which I created <a href="https://gatesmediablog.wordpress.com/adventurous-reader/">Adventurous Reader</a>. At first, I just didn't like how these books were displayed in e-readers and wanted to "fix" it, but as I looked into the history of non-linear electronic books, I realized that their aesthetics were the least of their problems. Non-linear electronic books have had potential for decades to engage people to read more, but if readers can even find these stories in the first place, they often leave users feeling lost, confused, or frustrated. The mediums non-linear electronic books are written in are often difficult to find, lack tools needed to track progress and position in books with complicated structures, are written in a highly experimental way such that only fellow writers would care to read them, are difficult or expensive for writers to create content for, and/or are inaccessible to readers because they are released to limited or deprecated platforms. Part of my research included reading non-linear stories in a variety of mediums to determine what made them succeed or fail. My thesis focused on the user interface of these books, what about them helped or hindered the user's ability to understand and navigate through the story. Because most historical electronic non-linear books have been published as applications, websites, or web applications, I also wanted to support my choice in developing an e-reader with a special user interface as opposed to working in one of these mediums. Finally, I had a personal interest in the stories themselves and what made them emotionally investing and interesting or a confusing montage of sounds, disconnected thoughts, and meaningless eye candy. My notes on the strengths and weaknesses of these stories, the mediums they were written in, and the tools they were developed with have since become this website. I hope you enjoy learning a little something about non-linear books and find a story that interests you! <h2>Suggested Starting Points</h2> <strong>Types of Non-Linear Narrative Structures</strong> * [[Axial Structure]] * [[Arborescent Structure]] * [[Network Structure]] <strong>Mediums</strong> * [[Books]] * [[E-Books]] * [[Applications]] * [[Websites]] * [[Web Applications]] * [[CYOA Games]] * [[Text Adventures]] * [[Visual Novels]] <strong>Tools</strong> * [[Literatronic]] <strong>Narratives</strong> * [[House of Leaves]] * [[Composition No. 1->Book-in-a-Boxes]] * [[The Unfortunates]] * [[The Adventures of Whatley Tupper]] * [[The Redemption of Mr. Sturlubok->The Redemption of Mr Sturlubok]] * [[The Most Boring Book Ever Written]] * [[Fluid]] * [[253]] * [[The Victorian Web]] * [[The Virtual Disappearance of Miriam]] * [[10:01->1001]] * [[The Intercept]] * [[The 39 Steps]] * [[Analogue: A Hate Story->Analogue A Hate Story]]